By Esther Criscuola de Laix
Editions of operas, operettas, oratorios, masques, musical theater pieces, and other dramatic or semidramatic pieces generally include elements and instructions specific to dramatic music. These may include the following:
- Headings for acts, scenes, and other major divisions (e.g., “Acte 1,” “Atto primo,” “Tableau 2,” “Pars prima”)
- Initial scene descriptions and character lists
- Headings and titles for musical numbers (e.g., “No. 1. Chorus”; “No. 4. Aria”)
- Recitatives
- Dialogue between numbers
- Instructions on the expression and delivery of specific lines
- “(effusively),” “(with compassion),” “(angrily, aside to Constanza)”[1]
- “(lentement et d’une voix caressante)”[2]
- Stage directions specifying actions taking place
For those preparing editions of dramatic music, this post will offer guidelines for the clear formatting and presentation of such elements, along with examples from Recent Researches editions.
Choosing a Source
As with the music and sung text of the edition, it is important to identify a principal source for any scenic instructions that appear as well. Note that the principal source for scenic instructions need not be the same as the primary source for the music, or even for the sung text: while we recommend in most cases that the same principal source be used for both the music and the sung text, it is often true that librettos (or similar text-only sources for musical-dramatic works) include more, and more detailed, dramatic and scenic instructions than musical sources do (whether printed or manuscript). If such a source exists for the piece you are editing, it is often an ideal choice. The source chosen for scenic instructions should be among those described in the “Sources” portion of your edition’s critical report and should be stated clearly in the editorial methods (e.g., “All act and scene numbering, character lists, scene descriptions, and stage directions are adopted from [source]”).
As with choosing a principal source for the music, it is important to stick with a single principal source and not to conflate readings from multiple sources. Errors may be corrected, however, and variant readings may be collated in the case of stage directions for the same piece that appear in multiple sources. Note that where you report such errors and variants differs depending on the type of principal source being used for scenic instructions:
- If the principal source is a libretto or similar nonmusical source, report in endnotes in the “Text and Translation” (or “Text” if the work is in English).
- If the principal source for scenic instructions is the same as the principal musical source, report along with other musical adjustments in the “Critical Notes” portion of the critical report.
Act and Scene Headings
Within the music, the words for “act” and “scene” headings are typically given in the language of the work and/or the source (e.g., “Atto” and “Scena” in Italian, “Acte” and “Scène” in French). Depending on the practice of the source either cardinal or ordinal numbers may be used (e.g., “Atto 1” vs. “Atto primo”), as long as the practice is followed consistently throughout the score, though act and scene labels may follow separate conventions in this regard. Place the act designation above the scene designation; they will always be the topmost elements of the page where they appear (see example 1).
Example 1. Domenico Cimarosa, L’infedeltà fedele, ed. Ethan Haimo (C085–86), opening of act 1 (p. 26).
If a dramatic work uses designations other than “act” and “scene” (e.g., “pars,” “jornada,” “tableau”), these may be retained and need not be changed to “act” and “scene” (see example 2).
Example 2. Juan Hidalgo, Celos aun del aire matan: Fiesta cantada (Opera in Three Acts with Text by Pedro Calderón de la Barca, ed. Louise Stein (B187), opening of first jornada (p. 3).
If a dramatic work includes one type of division but not the other, or lacks such divisions altogether, there is no need to impose them. See example 3, from an opera of 1958 whose only division is into scenes; and example 4, from a masque of 1700–1701 that has no marked act or scene divisions.
Example 3. Miriam Gideon, Fortunato, ed. Stephanie Jensen-Moulton (A075), opening of scene 2 (p. 47).
Example 4. John Eccles, The Judgment of Paris, ed. Eric J. Harbeson (B203), opening (p. 3).
Initial Scene Descriptions and Character Lists
These are typically placed below the act and/or scene labels and set in italics. There may be more than one “paragraph” of such descriptions and instructions (see example 1 above).
When an initial description or directive of this sort combines scene descriptions, character names, and stage actions, no separate character list is necessary (see example 2 above).
Titles of Musical Numbers
Many works of dramatic music are made up of multiple discrete, closed numbers (e.g., arias, duets, choruses, etc.). Each one should be numbered and titled; this can be done editorially (with an appropriate statement in the editorial methods portion of the critical report) if the sources of the work do not do so.
The title should begin with “No.,” then the appropriate numeral, then a designation of the type of number, usually in the language of the work (e.g., “No. 1. Chœur,” “No. 26. Recitativo accompagnato”). Music titles should be placed proximal to the music, with no other elements between; any act and scene labels, character lists, or scene descriptions should be placed before the music title. Each musical number should have its own measure numbering, beginning with 1.
If the work is not made up of discrete, closed numbers (e.g., in an opera in which recitative sections flow directly into sung sections), there is no need to impose a division into numbers. Measure numbering in such works usually starts anew with each scene or equivalent section.
Recitatives
When recitative sections appear between numbers, they may or may not be numbered and labeled in the manner described above, at the editor’s discretion; if numbered and labeled, they are included in the table of contents with the other numbers. Each recitative should begin with its own meter signature and have its own measure numbering (unless it is part of a continuous scene as described above).
Secco recitatives typically consist of a single vocal staff and a bass-line staff. The bass-line staff should be labeled “Basso continuo” (B.c.). Instead of a single label alongside the vocal staff, individual labels should be placed above the staff for each character that sings (see example 5).
Example 5. Pietro Domenico Paradies, Le muse in gara, ed. Vanessa Tonelli (B225), opening of no. 25, recitativo “Anch’io, Signor” (p. 141).
In an accompanied (accompagnato) recitative, instrumental staves should be labeled. The vocal staff should be labeled if only one character sings throughout the movement (see example 6) but unlabeled if more than one character sings (see example 7).
Example 6. Maria Anna von Raschenau, Le sacre stimmate di San Francesco d’Assisi, ed. Janet K. Page (B207), opening of accompanied recitative “Gli oracoli celesti” (p. 80).
Example 7. Joseph Weigl, Venere e Adone, ed. John A. Rice (C110), middle of accompanied recitative “E qual amica stella” (p. 102).
Dialogue
In creating editions of musical-dramatic works where sections of spoken dialogue are placed between musical numbers, authors have two options:
- Spoken dialogue may be included with the music manuscript, interspersed at the appropriate points.
- Numbered cues may be placed within the music manuscript and the “Text and Translation” or “Text” showing where specific dialogue passages are to be placed.
Act and scene labels, character lists, and scene descriptions may be placed within dialogue sections where necessary.
Stage Directions
Several kinds of stage directions can appear in musical-dramatic works. Some stage directions are attached to individual characters and utterances; these describe how and/or to whom the utterance is to be delivered, or what actions the character is to perform before, during, or after delivery. Such directions should be set above the relevant vocal staff at the relevant point in the music, in italics and enclosed in parentheses (see examples 8 and 9).
Example 8. Miriam Gideon, Fortunato, ed. Stephanie Jensen-Moulton (A075), entry of characters in scene 1 (p. 5).
Example 9. Ohé! les p’tits agneaux!: A Parisian revue de fin d’année for 1857, ed. Richard Sherr (N082–83), stage directions within no. 12, “Craignez la chaleur, madame” (p. 131).
Stage directions that cue mid-music actions not involving specific characters, or that describe actions or dialogue interrupting the music, should be placed between, before, or after the relevant systems (see examples 10, 11, and 12). Such directions are called “score directives” within A-R’s typesetting specs, and our production staff will ensure that a system break occurs at the relevant point in order to accommodate them.
Example 10. Georg Anton Benda, Philon und Theone, ed. Austin Glatthorn (C115), cue for glass harmonica music following no. 2, “Find ich hier Rettung?” (p. 43).
Example 11. Ohé! les p’tits agneaux!: A Parisian revue de fin d’année for 1857, ed. Richard Sherr (N082–83), scenic direction within no. 12, “Craignez la chaleur, madame” (p. 129).
Example 12. Ohé! les p’tits agneaux!: A Parisian revue de fin d’année for 1857, ed. Richard Sherr (N082–83), mid-music dialogue within no. 18, “Gazon, gazon” (p. 160).
Some General Guidelines
- All of the verbal scenic elements mentioned above should appear not only in the music but also in the “Text and Translation” (called simply “Text” if the work is in English) portion of the textual apparatus.
- Here, as with the sung text of any vocal work, it is extremely important that the text of scenic instructions, dialogue, and other dramatic or scenic elements given in the “Text and Translation” or “Text” match exactly the text of those instructions given in the music.
- When entering verbal scenic elements within the music files, be sure that they are formatted consistently throughout. The same font should be used for all such elements, and they should be entered in a way that ensures consistent placement close to the desired area of the score. For example, directives that go with specific characters in a specific measure need to be formatted as text attached to a measure rather than text attached to a system or page (the exact terminology for these types of text will vary from one notation program to another).
As always, if difficult or ambiguous situations arise, feel free to contact A-R for guidance.
[1] Miriam Gideon, Fortunato: An Opera in Three Scenes (1958), ed. Stephanie Jensen-Moulton (A075), 5, 13, and 20, respectively.
[2] “Slowly and with caressing voices.” Ohé! les p’tits agneaux!: A Parisian revue de fin d’année for 1857, ed. Richard Sherr (N082–83), 108.
[3] “Looking around themselves, confused”; “He smells.” Niccolò Piccinni, Il regno della Luna, ed. Lawrence Mays (C112–13), 530 and 533, respectively.
[4] Gideon, Fortunato, ed. Jensen-Moulton, 40 and 76, respectively.
[5] “At this moment, the thermometer reads thirty degrees . . . and continues to rise to thirty-seven degrees”; “He puts the crown on her head.” Ohé! les p’tits agneaux, ed. Sherr, 129 and 457, respectively.
Esther Criscuola de Laix is a house editor with A-R Editions.
